The Muslim advance into France is halted when Charles Martel defeats the Arabs between Poitiers and Tours

The caliphs in Baghdad begin to employ Turkish slaves, or Mamelukes, in their armies

The feudal knight of northern Europe, wearing armour of chain mail on a sturdy horse, becomes the fighting machine of the Middle Ages

Brian Boru, aged 73, achieves a major victory over the Vikings at Clontarf but is killed in his tent after the battle

A Chinese manual on warfare includes the earliest known description of gunpowder

In a battle near Elgin Macbeth kills his cousin Duncan, a rival claimant to the Scottish throne

The Seljuk Turks win a victory at Dandanqan, which gives them a base in the north of Iran and Afghanistan

A Russian chronicle makes the first mention of the marauding Polovtsy, who persistently raid Russian cities from the steppes

Duncan's son, Malcolm, kills Macbeth in battle at Lumphanan - and in the following year is himself crowned at Scone

Harold defeats at Stamford Bridge the joint army of his brother Tostig and of the Norwegian king, Harald Hardraade

The Normans, as seen in the Bayeux tapestry, invade England in Viking longships with fortified platforms for archers

Harold, hurrying south to confront the Normans after his victory at Stamford Bridge, is defeated and killed at Hastings

The Seljuk Turks and the Byzantines meet in battle at Manzikert, with victory going to the Turks

After a siege of seven months, the city of Antioch falls to the knights of the first crusade

Pope Innocent III and the second Lateran council outlaw the crossbow as a weapon causing unacceptable devastation

The city of Edessa is captured by Zangi, a Mameluke general, in the first setback for the crusaders in the Middle East

The fall of Edessa prompts the pope, Eugenius III, to call for a second crusade to defend the Latin kingdom

Saladin destroys the Christian army of the Latin kingdom in a battle below the Horns of Hattin

Saladin captures various Crusader fortresses and walled cities, including Acre

Saladin takes Jerusalem and treats the Christian inhabitants with a consideration unusual for the time

The longbow, a weapon of great use to English armies, is probably first developed in Wales

Alexander, a Russian prince, defeats a Swedish army on the frozen river Neva, thus winning his name Alexander Nevksy

Mongols of the Golden Horde defeat the Poles at Legnica and ravage the city of Cracow

At Ayn Jalut, near Nazareth, the Egyptian Mamelukes defeat the Mongol army of Hulagu - the first military setback for the Mongols

A Scottish victory over the Norwegians at Largs results in the recovery of the western isles