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| c. 500 BC |
| | | The followers of Pythagoras discover the mathematical basis of the octave | |
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| c. 450 BC |
| | | The followers of Pythagoras maintain that the earth revolves on its own axis and moves in an orbit | |
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| 409 BC |
| | | A Carthaginian army lands near Marsala to begin the long involvement of Carthage in Sicily | |
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| 396 BC |
| | | The Romans capture the nearby Etruscan town of Veii, beginning a long process of territorial expansion | |
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| 390 BC |
| | | Celtic tribes , pushing south through the Alps, reach Rome and sack the city | |
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| 312 BC |
| | | The first Roman road, the Via Appia, links Rome with Capua | |
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| c. 300 BC |
| | | The flexibility of the Roman legion transforms the Greek phalanx into an even more effective fighting machine | |
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| c. 300 BC |
| | | Vesta, goddess of the hearth, is served in Rome by virgin priestesses who tend the sacred flame in her shrine | |
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| 299 BC |
| | | The Roman siege technique is improved by the 'tortoise' which protects the attacking force | |
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| 281 BC |
| | | Pyrrhus lands in Italy, with 25,000 men and 20 elephants, to fight for the Greek colony of Tarentum against the Romans | |
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