Hospitals in the early modern period came increasingly under the control of civic rather than religious authorities. In England, the dissolution of the monasteries from 1536 removed the monastic infirmaries. The Protestant emphasis on salvation through Divine Providence disposed of the charitable institution as an instrument of redemption and work rather than mendicancy became the new ethic. The ‘deserving' sick and poor, defined as those who fell on hard times by being out of work, were separated from the undeserving who, it was believed, tried to avoid it at all costs. In Catholic countries, the distinction between worthy and unworthy remained blurred with the Church believing that all should be saved. During the 17th century, some cities in northern Italy established hospitals for beggars or mendicanti, and spiritual salvation remained the primary objective of hospitalisation. Religious services continued to be central to hospital life which, in some instances, led to tensions with the medical profession.

Etching c.1630 by Herman van Swanevelt (c. 1600-1655), Paris.